Poultry Birds

        +Poultry is an important farm species in almost all countries. It is an significant source of animal protein, and can be raised in situations with  limited feed and housing resources. Chickens are ‘waste converters’: they ‘convert’ a scavenged feed resource base into animal protein. They are therefore by far the most important species for generating income for rural families. People raise chickens all around the world under widely varying circumstances. Their main objective is generally the same: maximum production for minimum costs and with minimum risks. Nutritional composition of hen eggs.

          A young chicken from hatch to five weeks of age is called a chick.  A male chicken less than one year of age is a cockerel; a female through her first laying year may be referred to as a pullet.  A mature male chicken greater than one year of age is referred to as a cock or rooster; a mature female greater than one year old may be called a hen.

.EGGS

          Eggs are a biological structure proposed by nature for reproduction of birds.  They protect the developing chick embryo and provide food for the first few days of the chick’s life.  The egg is also one of the most nutritious and resourceful of human foods. The protective covering known as the shell is composed primarily of calcium carbonate, with 6,000 to 8,000 microscopic pores permitting transfer of volatile compounds.  The air cell is located in the large end of the egg, and is formed when the cooling egg contracts and pulls the inner and outer shell membranes apart.  The chord like chalazae holds the yolk in position in the center of the egg.  As shown, a membrane surrounds the yolk,

known as the vitelline membrane.  The germinal disc, a normal part of every egg, is located on the surface of the yolk.  Embryo formation begins here only in fertilized eggs. The albumen, or egg white, is secreted around the yolk.  Four distinct layers of albumen can be recognized in an egg: the chalaziferous layer, attached to the yolk; the inner thin albumen; the thick albumen; and the outer thin albumen.  Three-fourths of the albumen is made up of the thick and outer thin albumen.  The twisting of the egg during formation appears responsible for the separation of the albumen into the four layers. Two shell membranes are formed, an inner and an outer shell membrane.  These are rather loose fitting membranes when first formed.  Water is added to the egg to “plump out” the egg into its final shape.  The outer shell membrane is about three times as thick as the inner membrane.  The membranes normally adhere to each other except at the large end of the egg, where they are separated to form the air cell.

          The eggshell is made up almost entirely of calcium carbonate deposited on the outer shell membrane.  The process of forming the shell requires 19 to 20 hours.  About two grams of calcium is deposited in each eggshell.  Strong eggshells are essential for eggs to be handled as they progress from farm to market.  Hens are usually fed a laying ration to obtain the majority of the eggshell calcium directly from the feed, but they also withdraw some calcium from their bones, especially at night when they are not eating.

 Why raising chickens.

          People raise chickens for eggs, meat, exhibition, and rare breed preservation, as well as for the enjoyment of raising, caring for, and watching their interesting behavior. Some people raise them to hear a rooster crow to symbolize past days on the farm. There is a wide array of chicken breeds. Choosing the right type of chicken can be difficult. The purpose of this publication is to help beginners determine which types of chickens are most suited to their needs.

Egg production:

White Leghorns are prolific layers of white eggs. Golden Comets and Red Sex Links are excellent layers of brown eggs. In general, chicken breeds with white ear lobes lay white eggs, whereas chickens with red ear lobes lay brown eggs.

Eggs and meat

Dual purpose breeds include several American and English breeds such as Plymouth Rocks, Sussex, and Wyandottes. These breeds lay reasonably well and are large enough for meat production.

Meat

. For meat production only, nothing compares with the fast growth of Cornish Cross (White Cornish x White Plymouth Rock). They reach 4-5 lbs in 6 weeks and 6-10 lbs in 8-12 weeks.

Exhibition

Exhibition poultry shows are popular in Indiana and the Midwest. The American Poultry Association (APA) publishes,  The American Standard of Perfection. This illustrated book gives a complete description of all recognized breeds and varieties of domestic poultry. Chickens are judged according to those descriptions of ideal breed type, color, weight, and other characteristics for the particular breed and variety.

Products and by-products of poultry

Eggs :        The egg production is the primary aim of keeping poultry farms.  Eggs have a high nutritional value. Both the egg-white and yolk contain high quality protein (for both, this is at least 10% of their own weight). The egg-yolk has about 33% fat. Eggs also have a lot of vitamin A and D, and some vitamin B.  The storage place for the eggs must be clean and as cool as possible, especially if the eggs must be kept for more than a week.

Chicken meat: Hens which have stopped laying will usually be used for feeding your family. If you want to sell the meat, it is often better to sell live chickens. There is a good market for the meat of local chicken breeds. Chicken meat is a high quality and healthy food with an average protein content of about 20% and relatively little fat (about 7%), especially under the skin.

Chicken manure: Chicken manure is very rich in nitrogen and other minerals, especially phosphorus, calcium and potassium. It is therefore a very good fertilizer. Manure which is stored for a long time will loose part of its value as fertilizer. Keep the manure as dry as possible. This minimizes the loss of minerals and problems with flies. Regularly removing the manure under a chicken house will also reduce the loss of minerals. There are several other uses for chicken manure. It can be put into fish ponds, where some of it is eaten by the fish, although most of it is used by the plants, which are then eaten by the fish. In many countries, dried chicken manure is fed to cattle or goats, e.g. in combination with grains and molasses. For this, the manure must not be too old, and must be dried quickly so that it keeps as many of its nutrients as possible. And gas can be made from the manure, using a biogas digester. The slurry which is then left over is still a very good fertilizer for use on the land and in fish ponds.

Slaughter waste: Slaughter waste produced on your farm is a very good feed supplement if it is ground up and dried well. The waste must be sterilized, or else there is a large chance of transmitting diseases. It is also very important that carcasses of birds which die during the production period are removed as quickly as possible.

 

Poultry breeds 

All over the world, more than 300 breeds of the domestic chicken species (Gallus domesticus) exist. We distinguish three main categories of chicken breeds: pure commercial breeds, hybrid breeds resulting from cross-breeding, and local breeds or landraces.

 Poultry breeds are roughly divided according to the aim of production as follows.

 Layers:  egg-laying, mainly with lightweight laying breeds or layers

Broilers: meat production, mainly by heavyweight breeds or broilers

Dual purpose: both egg-laying and meat production by so-called dual-purpose breeds.

Breeds of poultry :

Chickens:

          Chickens primarily are raised for meat and eggs.  The type raised depends on the product wanted.  A few other specialty types are raised, such as game chickens and fancy show chickens.Newly hatched chicks.  Chicks is a term used to describe young chickens.

 Plymouth Barred Rock rooster.  Roosters are the male of the species and hens are the female of the species.  The Plymouth Rock is one of the foundation breeds of the modern broiler industry. Plymouth Rock rooster has a single comb with red wattles.  Generally, Plymouth Rocks are not extremely aggressive and tame quite easily.

Rhode Island Reds are a good choice for the small flock owner.  A dual-purpose medium-heavy fowl; used more for egg production than meat production because of its dark-colored pin feathers and its good rate of lay. Relatively hardy, they are probably the best egg layers of the dual-purpose breeds.  This breed lays brown eggs.

          Rhode Island Reds are tough birds, resistant to illness, good at foraging and free-ranging, and are typically docile, quiet and friendly. Although they are widely known as good layers through cold periods, if the coop temperature drops below freezing their output drops considerably and the tips of their combs become very susceptible to frostbite. Rhode Island Reds are excellent egg layers. Although they can sometimes be stubborn, they can end up producing up to 250 to 300 large, light brown eggs per year. When free ranged, their first-year eggs can be too large to fit comfortably in a standard or medium egg carton. 9 hens with 1 to 2 roosters can lay up to 6-7 eggs per day depending on their conditions of care and treatment.

 New Hampshire

a dual-purpose chicken, selected more for meat production than egg production. Medium heavy in weight, it dresses a nice, plump carcass as either a broiler or a roaster.  This breed lays brown eggs.White Leghorn is the most popular commercial egg production breed.

Leghorns take their name from the city of Leghorn, Italy, where they are considered to have originated. Leghorns and their descendants are the most numerous breed we have in America today.  This breed lays white eggs.Buff Cochin hens do not have the elaborate combs and coloring of the roosters.

Old English game rooster.  This breed is tightly feathered, very active, and very noisy. Cochins are literally big, fluffy balls of feathers. They are mainly kept as an ornamental fowl and are well suited to close confinement.  Their ability as mothers is widely recognized and Cochins are frequently used as foster mothers for game birds and other species.  Cochins are originally from China but underwent considerable development in the U.S. They lay brown eggs.

Bantams Bantams are the miniatures of the poultry world.  The word bantam is the overall term for more than 350 kinds of true-breeding miniature chickens. Black Breasted Red Old English Game Bantam roosters were once popular fighting birds until the sport was outlawed.  Today they are bred as ornamental birds.

Black Breasted Red Old English Game Bantam hens are not as colorful as roosters but make attractive exhibits. Black Bantam roosters are raised primarily as ornamental birds.  Bantams are produced  in a very large range of color markings.   Bantams will commonly have a name similar or like the standard chicken breeds followed by bantam. 

 

Turkeys may vary in color from white to  bronze with mottled shades of black.  The mottled shades are not as common as white or bronze.White turkeys are the most popular turkeys for the production of meat.  Others breeds can be bronze (red) or black colored.  This bird is strutting, fluffing its feathers.

  

OTHER POULTRY BIRDS

GEESE

          Many geese are kept for  ornamental purposes.  Some geese are kept  to control weeds and grass.  The Toulouse goose originates from the Toulouse area of southern France.  The plumage is dark gray on the back, gradually shading to light gray edged with white on the breast and to white on the abdomen. Many geese are kept for ornamental purposes.  Some geese are kept to control weeds and grass.  The White Chinese goose has a distinctive knob on its head.  Chinese geese can be colored brown in addition to the white color. The Embden was one of the first breeds of geese introduced to the United States.  It originated in Germany.

 DUCKS

          Ducks are raised for meat, eggs, down and feathers. (Down is the soft feathery covering that grows under feathers.)  Ducks are also kept as hobby or ornamental ducks.

Some duck species used as poultry birds are as follows:

1.    White Pekin ducks

2.    Rouen ducks

3.    Muscovy ducks

 White Pekin ducks are the most popular meat duck in the United States reaching a market weight at 7 pounds in 8 weeks.   The breed originated in China and was  brought to the United States in the 1870s. Ducks are very versatile and live happily under a wide variety of climatic conditions. 

Virtually everything from feathers to feet, including the liver and tongue, can be turned into a profit; the only unusable  thing about them is their quack.

 Rouen ducks are excellent meat producers but poor egg production and colored  plumage make them unsuitable for mass  commercial production.  White plumage is preferred for commercial feather processing.

 Muscovy ducks

          originated in South America.  Numerous varieties of Muscovies exist; the white variety is the most desirable for market purposes.  Mucsovies are an excellent meat bird but their low egg production makes them unsuitable for commercial duck farms.   Although they are not ideally suited to commercial production, Muscovies have excellent possibilities for small general farms with special retail outlets. Call ducks are well suited as meat producers but poor egg production and colored plumage make them unsuitable for commercial production. The brightly colored plumage makes the Gray Call duck an attractive exhibit on farms and estates.

 GUINEA FOWL

          Guineas are raised for food, as novelty birds, and to stock game preserves. Guinea Fowl get their name from Guinea, a part of the western coast of Africa.  History reveals that Guinea fowl have been raised as table fare since before the   time of the ancient Greeks and Romans.   Guinea fowl are used as a substitute for  game birds and are considered a delicacy in some restaurants. Guineas might be more popular in the  United States if they were not so loud with their harsh and seemingly never ending cry. They often have a bad disposition and are not very popular with commercial producers.

 PEAFOWL

          Peafowl are raised for large, beautiful feathers.  The feathers may be five times the length of the body. Peafowl belongs to the same family as  pheasants and chickens, differing in no important characteristic other than plumage.  Peafowl are native to India, Burma, and Malaya.  Peafowl are usually sold as pairs of ornamental birds.  They are edible and are regarded as a delicacy for special occasions. Peafowl have a very raucous voice, which  may annoy the neighbors. Peacocks are the male and peahens are the  female of the species.

PIGEONS

Pigeons are versatile with four distinct uses:  (1) the sport of racing pigeons; (2) flyers and performers; (3) showing fancy pigeons;  and (4) meat production. There are about 200 different breeds of  pigeons, each distinct from the other in behavior, size, shape, stance, feather form, colors, markings, and ornamentation. Pigeons often mate in pairs and remain pairs for life.

DIETARY REQUIREMENT OF POULTRY BIRDS

 Energy requirements

          The energy intake means the calories that are taken in by the chicken with its feed: see figure 25 for a schematic design. The amount of energy contained in feedstuffs is normally expressed in units of metabolisable energy (ME) per unit weight. The metabolisable energy refers to the feed energy that is available to the bird for maintenance of vital functions and the production of meat and eggs. It is expressed in e.g. calories per gram (cal/g) or kilocalories per kg (kcal/kg). 1 kcal equals 4,2 kJ. The enegy requirement of poultry can be expressed in terms of metabolisable energy per day (kcal/d). Dietary energy comes mainly from carbohydrates but also from fat and protein. Chickens are usually given free access to food and allowed to consume as much as they wish. They usually consume just enough food to meet their nutrient requirements. This control of intake is based primarily on the amount of energy in the diet. Birds eat to satisfy their energy requirements. Thus, increasing the concentration of energy in the diet will result in a decrease in intake, and vice versa, as long as intake is not limited by problems of bulk, texture, inaccessibility or palatability. Levels of nutrients in a diet are therefore often stated in terms of energy content. Recommended energy levels in poultry diets are about 2,800 kcal/kg for layers and about 3,000 kcal/kg for broilers (see appendix 2). When chickens reduce their intake because of heat stress, it is advisable to use more concentrated diets, so that they get enough nutrients in spite of the lower intake.

 Protein requirements

          Protein is made up of amino acids, and birds obtain these amino acids from their feed to build up their own proteins in the body. Priority always goes to maintenance, and any surplus is used for growth or egg production. High protein feed is expensive, so rations which are too high in protein are wasteful. The excess protein is broken down and used as an energy source, and the excess nitrogen is excreted as uric acid. The synthesis of protein in the body tissues requires an adequate supply of about twenty different amino acids in the proper proportions. Ten of these cannot be synthesized by the bird’s metabolism and must therefore be supplied by the diet. These are called essential amino acids, the main ones being lysine and methionine.

          A shortage of essential amino acids will limit production. The quality of feed protein can be described in terms of the amino acids it supplies. However, it is useful to specify total requirements for crude protein in addition to requirements for the main essential amino acids. There should be enough crude protein to supply the required amounts of these amino acids. In most nutrient requirement tables, only the percentages of lysine and methionine are given, and these percentages should be regarded as an indication that there is enough of the other essential amino acids too.

Vitamin requirements:

          Vitamins play a role in the enzyme systems and natural resistance of poultry. They are only needed in very small quantities, but are vital to sustain life. Vitamin deficiency can lead to serious disorders. Natural vitamins are found in young and green plants, seeds and insects. When birds are confined in poultry houses, they are entirely dependent on the vitamins present in the compounded feed. All vitamins may be purchased in a synthetic form at a commercial price, and may be added to the mixed feed as a premix. Without extra vitamins, rations may not be balanced enough to support high productivity.

Mineral requirements:

          Minerals, especially calcium (Ca) and phosphorus (P), are chiefly needed for the bones. Enzyme systems are also often dependant on trace elements of certain minerals, such as iron, copper, zinc and iodine. The mineral requirements of poultry are defined in terms of the separate mineral elements, although minerals are always added to diets in the form of compounds. It is useful to know the proportion of each element in these compounds, so that the correct amount of this element can be added to the diet.

  Calcium and phosphorus

          Calcium and phosphorus both primarily add to the structure and maintenance of the chicken bones. The skeleton accounts for about 99% of the calcium and 80% of the phosphorusin the body. The two minerals interact with each other, both before and after their absorption from the digestive tract. An over-supply of either mineral can interfere with the utilization of the other. During egg production, calcium needs are more than doubled. Poultry’s calcium and phosphorus requirements are influenced by the amount of vitamin D in the diet, increasing as the level of vitamin D decreases and vice versa. For growing birds, the ratio of Ca : P should be between 1:1 and 2:1. However, laying birds need a ratio of up to 6:1, and they need about 4.0 g of calcium per day for eggshell formation.

          Supplements like steamed bone-meal are added to chick and grower diets to provide extra calcium and phosphorus. For laying birds, the extra calcium requirement is provided by oyster-shell grit fed separately or by limestone flour added to the diet. The main criteria for determining a laying hen’s requirements of calcium and phosphorus are egg production and shell thickness. Calcium requirements should be specified in terms of amount of calcium per day rather than percentage in diets. This is particularly important in the tropics, where reduced intake due to heat may result in too little calcium being consumed each day.

 

 

POULTRY HOUSE

Housing systems :

§  Open sided poultry houses are very popular in India. The poultry house should be well ventilated and free from drafts.

§  The distance between two sheds shall be 20m. Stock house for growers shall be 50 to 100 m away from the layer house to avoid infections.

§  The shed has to face east-to-west along its length. This facilitates good sunshine in winter and reduces direct sunlight in summer.

§  Housing systems are of two types-battery and deep litter systems.

Battery system (cage system) :

·       It is the most intensive system of poultry farming.

·       A cage of the size 15"(width) x12" (depth) x 17" (height on the front side) and 15" (height on the rear side) can accommodate only three birds.

·       Cage floor is set in a slope, so that the eggs laid roll out of the cage in to the gutter. Below the cage, floor tray is arranged to receive the droppings.

·       Both feed and water receptacles are arranged out side the cage. These cages are assembled to one another.

·       These are multi-storeyed, if necessary.

·       Advantages :

·       Wastage of feed is minimum.

·       A Bird utilizes minimum energy.

·       Performance of each bird can be assessed very easily.

·       Culling of unproductive and sick birds is easy.

·       More birds can be accommodated.

·       It is the labor saving practice.

·       Disadvantages :

·       High initial investment is involved.

·       Birds suffer from cage fatigue and fatty

·       liver syndrome (enlarged liver).

Deep Litter System :

 

 

A deep litter house with corrugated metal and welded

mesh

·       Birds are kept in large pens. Each pen can accommodate a maximum 250 birds.

·       Floor is covered with litter of 8" to 12" thickness and is created by using sawdust or husk or groundnut shells.

·       Bird droppings accumulate into the litter. Hence, this litter should be changed periodically. Each bird requires the

·       floor space of 1.8 to 2.0 square feet.

·       Proper ventilation is required to keep the litter dry.

·       Advantages:

·       Coccidiosis and worm infections are less common in deep litter system, as bird droppings are decomposed

·       quickly in the deep litter.

·       Litter maintains constant temperature.

 

POULTRY HOUSING EQUIPMENT

     Feeders :

·       Circular trough and long feeders are used in deep litter system. Circular feeders are the hanging hoppers, which

·       are suitable for the birds of all ages.

·       Long feeders and trough feeders shall have non-Water fountain roosting devices to prevent the roosting of birds.

·       Wire-hinged grill or galvanized sheets with holes are used as non-roosting devices.

 

 Rectangular wooden feeder

 

 

 Hanging metal feeder

      Waterers :

·       Chickens consume large amount of water. So water shall be supplied to the birds all times.

·       Earthen pitcher a Fountains, covered containers (consists of tin or earthen container with saucer, container is

·       turned up side down) and water troughs with non-roosting device are used as waterers in the deep litter system.

 

·       II. Broilers and their management :

·       A broiler or fryer is young chicken of either sex below 8th to 10th week age, weighing 1.5 kg and with smooth textured breast.

·       These are used for meat purpose. Roaster is an older and heavier than the broiler bird.

·       Broiler rearing is mainly brooding. Brooding is continued for the first two weeks. Mostly deep litter system of housing is followed in India for broiler rearing.

·       Temperature should be reduced gradually from 95°F to 70°F at the rate of 5° F per week. Proper ventilation shall be maintained to provide more oxygen, to remove ammonia and to keep carbon dioxide at low level. Floor space of 1.0 to 1.2 square feet is required per bird.

·       De-beaking is not practiced for broilers at present. As feed, Pre-starter mash containing 22% protein and 3200 k.cal energy is given initially.

·       Starter mash, containing 20 to 25% protein and 3200 k.cal energy, is provided up to 7th week; finish mash,

containing 19% protein and 3400 k.cal energy, should be given from 7th week to the 10th week.

 

POULTRY MANAGEMENT

1.    practices for layers and broilers, Management practices for raising layer birds:

1)   Layers are the birds used exclusively for eggs. The following management practices are required for layers.

Management practices in hatching the eggs :

2)   In 21 days, a fertilized egg develops into a chick through a process of hatching. It may be natural or artificial. 

3)   Natural hatching is a primitive process in which brooding hen hatches the eggs. 

4)   Incubators (electrical instrument for maintaining required temperature) are used for temperature maintenance in artificial broading followed in hatcheries.

 

2.              Management of birds at different ages :

1)   Management in Brooding of chicks :

3.              Rearing of 1 day old chicks till 8th week (until they        no longer require supplementary heat) is called brooding. 

1)   Brooding is natural and artificial. Desi hens with strong maternal instinct brood the day old chicks till the 8th week. 

2)   Artificial brooding is accomplished by temperature - controlled brooders. Basket brooders are used for small number of chicks and battery brooders are used for large number of chicks. 

3)   Basket brooders have hanging brooding hover, fitted with bulb. Chick guard is used to contain the chicks.

4)   30"xl5"xl5" battery brooder (cage brooder) can accommodate 30 chicks. 

5)   Battery brooders are with adjustable waterers, feeders and thermostatic heat regulators

4.    Brooder house should be cleaned properly and should be kept disinfected by suitable disinfectants, A layer of 5 cm thick litter should be made with husk or saw dust. Litter shall be stirred frequently. 

1)   Temperature has to be maintained 95°F during the first week, 90° F second week, 85°F third week, 80°F fourth week to eighth week.

2)   Temperature can be reduced by adjusting the height of the hover. Chick guard is placed 1.2 m away from the hover edge to contain the chicks. Uniform light and temperature are required. 

3)   If the temperature is too high, the chicks move away from the hover too less, the chicks aggregate below the hover. 

4)   If the temperature is uniform, the chicks distribute evenly. 

5)   The feed given for these chicks is brooder mash, or chick mash. It contains 21% protein, 2900 to 3000 k.cal energy. 

6)   1st de-beaking (clipping of upper beak) on 10th day is desirable. 

7)   One day old chicks have to be vaccinated against Mareck’s diseases.

8)   Birds shall be vaccinated against Ranikhet disease and fowl pox at the age of 6th to 8th week. 

9)   1st  de-worming is necessary at the age of 8 weeks.

 

5.    2)  Management practices in raising the pullets

6.    The objective of grower management is to produce a pullet, which will lay eggs from 17^th or 20^th  week. 

1)   The mash given is grower mash containing 17.5% protein 2700 k.cal energy. 

2)   2^nd   de-worming is necessary for every 8 weeks then onwards, to remove the intestinal parasites. 

7.    2nd de-beaking is advised at the age of 13^th or 14^th  week.  The booster dose of Raniket disease has to be given at the age of 8-10 weeks.

8.    3)  Management in raising the egg laying birds:

9.    From 17^th  or 20^th week of age, the chicks start laying eggs. One laying nest is required for every four birds. 

1)   Pre-layer mash containing 16.5% protein, 2.5% calcium and 2500 k.cal energy should be supplied from 17th to 20th week. 

2)   Then onwards layer mash containing 16.5% protein, 3.7 to 3.8% calcium and 2500 k.cal energy is required. 

3)   The poor layers which are unproductive and uneconomical are usually culled. Good and poor layer birds can be

 

HATCHING EGGS BY USING BROODING HENS

          One brooding hen is capable of hatching 8-10 eggs at the same time. If about 70% of the chicks hatch, this means that each brooding hen gives 6-7 chicks. However, the mortality rate among young chicks can be very high. You experience and the extent to which you can minimize deaths among young chicks determine, therefore, how many brooding hens you will need. 

Use the following criteria to choose which eggs to hatch:

1.    The eggs selected must, of course, be fertilized. This is rarely a  problem if there is a cock present. On average, one cock is needed for every 10 hens. If a cock is not normally kept with the hens, he must be put in with the hens two weeks before the hatching period.

2.    Use undamaged and clean eggs which are neither too small nor too large. The best results can be expected if you choose medium sized eggs from hens which lay well.

3.    Collect the eggs regularly, e.g. three times a day. Let the eggs cool down as quickly as possible.

4.    If necessary, keep the eggs for a few days, but preferably not for more than a week. If the eggs have to be kept for a week, they must be stored at a temperature of between 14 and 16 °C. Storing hatching eggs at temperatures below 12 – 14 °C is not advisable.  If the temperature cannot be kept at the recommended level, a shorter storage period is necessary. Eggs can be kept for only three days at  20°C. Write the date of collection on the egg in pencil, to help you remember how long the egg can be stored.

5.    If a hen shows broody behavior for two days, she can be used for brooding. Brooding hens must be healthy and not too small.

A broody hen can be recognized by:

·       a characteristic broody sound

·       a wrinkled comb

·       an unwillingness to leave her nest

·       the collecting of as many eggs as possible in her nest.

6.    Before allowing a hen to brood, it is best to treat her with an insecticide against flies and lice. If flies and lice are a problem, the treatment should be repeated after 10 days. In the beginning, the hen will brood irregularly until she can sit on 6 to 12 eggs. It is best not to let the hen sit on selected eggs during this period. Only when she broods regularly can the eggs be replaced with specially selected eggs. Large hens

7.    can brood on 14 eggs, but a smaller, local hen brood should be given no more than 8 eggs to brood on.

8.    Use a clean and parasite-free brooding coop. The coop should be about 35 x 35 cm, and 40 cm high. The nest consists of straw, hay or dry leaves, and is about 25 cm wide. To stimulate the brooding process, you can place the coop in a cool, dark place, or partially cover it.

9.    The brooding place must be free from other chickens and protected against dogs, rats, snakes etc. It is a good idea to add a run onto the brooding coop. Place good feed and clean, fresh water near the brooding hen.

Artificial hatching

          It is possible to buy small incubators which hatch out a larger number of eggs at the same time. You can, however, also build such a device yourself using relatively simple materials. Hatching eggs by hens or in an incubator. This booklet describes how to construct an incubator capable of hatching 50 eggs at the same time.

 

The most important requirements for artificial hatching are:

·       You must be able to regulate the temperature you need. This must be about 38°C (100 F). Only a simple heat source is needed.

·       The temperature must be kept as constant as possible.

·       The relative humidity of the air must be quite high, at about 55-60%. It must be increased to about 75% after the 18th day, by placing bowls of water in the incubator. Of course you must keep the bowls filled.

·       Fresh air must be circulated through the incubator regularly. The eggs must be turned regularly (preferably 2 or 3 times a day). To turn an egg, you must rotate it 180° about its longest axis.

·       With the proper care and effort you can achieve almost the same results with artificial hatching as with brooding hens. Still, it is usually better to count on a slightly lower success rate, e.g. 65-70% instead of 75-80%. The brooding period should be timed so that the chicks hatch in the dry season.

  

POULTRY DISEASES:

           Poultry that have an infection show a variety of symptoms, such as respiratory problems, diarrhea and paralysis. It should be emphasized at the outset that prevention of infection in a poultry flock through sound management is very important. This is because although some infectious diseases can be treated, for many it is a waste of time and money and infected birds should be disposed of immediately.  Infectious organisms may be divided into four classes: protozoan, bacterial, fungal and viral. Specific drugs are usually recommended for bacterial, protozoan and fungal infections, while some viral diseases can be prevented by vaccination. For more information on suitable drugs, consult your local veterinarian.

 

BACTERIAL DISEASES

Colibacillosis: This is the common name for a large variety of diseases, including yolk-sac infection of chicks, reproductive disorders and peritonitis in layers, and septicemia (blood poisoning) in growers. They are all caused by the bacterium Escherichia coli, which is found in the intestines of all warm-blooded animals. Affected birds can be treated with antibiotics. To prevent further spread of this organism, disinfect the premises and the pens with a commercial disinfectant, and provide good drainage.

Salmonella infection (paratyphoid and pullorum):

(i)                   Paratyphoid (salmonellosis)

     Salmonella infections may affect all domestic poultry, although adult birds often do not show any symptoms. Salmonella bacteria may also contaminate hatching eggs, which results in diarrhea, depression and death in young chicks. Paratyphoid is highly infectious and can be transmitted by mice, rats, other birds and/or through contaminated feed. Symptomless adult birds constitute a human health risk if meat and egg hygiene are not adequate.

(ii)                Pullorum (bacillary white diarrhea).

     Usually a symptomless disease in adults, pullorum is transmitted to young chicks through the egg. This results in fatal diarrhea within the first four weeks of life. Adult birds may suffer from infection of the ovaries, or septicemia. This disease can be eliminated with good hatchery hygiene.   To avoid this disease, buy chicks only from a reputable hatchery.

Psittacosis

          Psittacosis is found mainly in psittacine birds (parrots, lorikeets, galahs, cockatoos, budgerigars etc), but may also affect pigeons, turkeys and chickens. In chickens, symptoms may pass unnoticed or the birds may exhibit general weakness, diarrhea and discharge from the eyes and nose. All infected birds should be culled and burned. The remainder of the flock should be treated with antibiotics in the feed. As the disease can be transmitted to humans, great care must be taken when handling infected birds. In humans, the disease resembles influenza but can progress to a severe, and possibly fatal, pneumonia.

Avian spirochaetosis (tick fever)

          In chickens and turkeys the blood parasite Borrelia anserina causes a relapsing fever-like condition. This disease, which is transmitted by the fowl tick Argas persicus, has been diagnosed in Darwin, Alice Springs and on many stations. Birds of all ages may be infected. They become feverish, have green diarrhea and may become paralyzed in the wings or legs. The disease can be controlled by eliminating ticks from the flock.   In backyard flocks, the painting of perches and woodwork with sump-oil or creosote and removing and disposing of wood and rubbish from yards is usually an effective method of control.

Staphylococcus infections

          The bacterium Staphylococcus aureus is widespread in the environment and causes a variety of opportunistic infections in poultry, especially in the tropics. These include foot abscesses, infections of joint membranes and dermatitis of combs and wattles. These infections may be treated with suitable antibiotics in the feed. Badly-infected birds are best removed and destroyed, as full recovery does not usually occur. The premises should be disinfected.

Infectious coryza

          Infectious coryza is caused by a small bacterium Haemophilus gallinarum, which mainly infects growing and laying fowls under conditions of poor hygiene, ventilation and nutrition. Symptoms are discharge from the eyes and nostrils, a swollen face, a drop in egg production and sometimes diarrhea. It is a chronic disease, which can result in mortalities when complicated with other infectious agents. Infected birds should be culled, as they may remain carriers for several months after infection. Preventative measures include rearing growers away from older birds, culling of carrier birds and improved management.

Chronic respiratory disease (CRD)

          CRD is caused by Mycoplasma gallisepticum. Its symptoms are sniffling, sneezing and depressed egg production in chickens and sinusitis in turkeys. Its severity often depends on the concurrent presence of other diseases. Both turkeys and fowls of all ages can be infected. This disease is transmitted by inhaling infected air droplets, through eggs to the next generation, or by mechanical means, such as boots and equipment. The organism will die in a day or two when pens are empty, but recovered birds may remain carriers for some time. CRD may be treated with specific antibiotics and vitamin supplements in the feed if only a few birds are involved. Another bacterium of this group, Mycoplama synoviae, causes subclinical upper respiratory tract infection and may be involved in air sacculitis associated with Newcastle disease and infectious bronchitis. Consult your veterinarian for antibiotic recommendations for these diseases. Vaccines are available for both of them.

Fowl cholera:

          All domestic poultry are susceptible to this highly infectious disease, caused by the bacterium Pasteurella multocida. Fowl cholera may be deadly, or may linger in infected birds. Symptoms are variable and include respiratory problems and diarrhea. It is spread through the flock by contaminated water, in droppings and in nasal discharges. All infected birds should be culled and burned. The disease can be treated with a number of antibiotics or sulphonamide drugs. It can be prevented by good management and vaccination.

Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium avium):

          Rarely found in young chicks, this infection is a "wasting" disease of all domestic poultry, canaries, parrots, pigeons and wild birds kept in captivity. Avian tuberculosis may be transmitted to humans, cattle and pigs. Symptoms are not specific and may include gradual loss of weight, diarrhea, lameness, general weakness and eventually, death. Treatment is not recommended. All infected birds should be culled and burned. The premises should be cleaned with a phenolic disinfectant or lime and then left for two years before introducing a new flock. Notify the Department of Resources if you suspect tuberculosis in your poultry.

 

FUNGAL DISEASES

          As all domestic poultry, wild birds, other animals and humans can be infected by fungi, take great care when handling infected birds. Transmission occurs by inhaling fungal spores from sick birds, contaminated litter or feed.

Aspergillosis:

          The most common fungal disease in birds is Aspergillus fumigatus, which causes pneumonia or enteritis in all age groups, especially in the presence of other infections. Treatment is not recommended. Infected birds should be culled and burned. All moldy litter should be removed and burned and the pens should be sprayed with 1% copper sulfate.

Candidiasis or thrush:

          Candidiasis is another common fungal disease, which is found in younger age groups of all domestic poultry. It usually affects the mouth and crop, with sour-smelling crop content. It may also cause diarrhea. It primarily affects stressed birds. Check for unsanitary conditions, overcrowding and coccidiosis. Treat with nystatin to provide effective control.

 

PROTOZOAN DISEASES

Coccidiosis:

          Coccidiosis is one of the most common diseases of poultry. It is caused by a number of species of protozoa called coccidia. Fowls, turkeys, ducks and geese are all affected. However, coccidia are host-specific, so fowls are not affected by duck coccidia and vice versa. The disease usually affects birds over three weeks of age. The symptoms include ruffled feathers, drooping wings, pale combs and diarrhea, sometimes streaked with blood. Most losses occur in young birds, but adult birds can also be affected. Large numbers of chickens may die suddenly without apparent symptoms.

          The coccidia live in the intestine or caecum of the bird and pass out through the droppings. They become infective in damp surroundings and are spread from bird to bird when infected droppings are eaten. Coccidia may survive for long periods in the litter. Good management will help prevent serious outbreaks of coccidiosis. If birds are denied access to droppings, the life cycle will be broken. This is achieved when birds are raised on wire. Damp litter around water troughs will allow coccidia to become infective. Medication in feed is often necessary to prevent outbreaks of coccidiosis. Young birds raised on the ground should be routinely treated with a coccidiostat. As the wet season provides ideal conditions for coccidia to become infective, medication is recommended at that time.

Blackhead:

          The protozoon that causes this disease is Histomonas meleagridis. Both young fowls and turkey sare affected by this protozoon but turkeys are far more susceptible and are more likely to contract this disease when run with poultry than when run on their own. Histomonads live largely in the caecum (blind gut) and invade other organs from there. Symptoms of blackhead include a drooped and huddled appearance, dark coloration of the head, shrunken comb and wattles and yellowish diarrhea. Living in the caecum places the histomonads in contact with the caecal worm (Heterakis gallinae) and the eggs of the worm become infected with the protozoa. Blackhead is transmitted when bird seat droppings containing these infected worm eggs. Drugs are available to treat blackheads. To prevent re-infection, control caecal worms at the same time with good management. Turkeys and fowls should not be run together.

Trichomoniasis:

          Trichomoniasis is caused by Trichomonas gallina. It is a disease of the upper digestive tract. It has been found in pigeons, doves, and kites in the NT but may invade hens and turkeys if they drink infected water or eat infected feed. Affected pigeons will go off-feed, appear ruffled, become emaciated, and die, with a green-yellow fluid dripping from the beak.

 

VIRAL DISEASES

          Viral diseases are the most common cause of losses, not only in large commercial flocks but also in backyard chickens. Mostly, they do not respond to drug therapy. Treatment relies on supportive measures. Prevention and control rely on vaccination where this is effective, or by limiting exposure to infected birds. If a secondary bacterial infection is also present, antibiotics may reduce the severity of an outbreak.

Marek's disease (MD)

          This disease usually affects birds two to five months old and causes lymphoid tumors. Symptoms vary according to the position of the tumors. Usually, the nerves are affected and spastic paralysis occurs either in the legs, wings, or neck. The virus of MD can remain infective for many months in the litter or dry feathers.MD is prevented very effectively by vaccinating day-old chicks. Buy only vaccinated chicks.

Lymphoid leucosis

          This disease is normally found in chickens more than four months old. They pick it up in the first few weeks of their life, or from the mother which, if affected, passes leucosis through the egg. The tumors develop lowly; birds become sickly, pale and thin, and often have an enlarged abdomen. There is no known effective treatment for leucosis, no rare there vaccines available. Affected birds should be culled from the flock.

 

Fowlpox

          This is a highly infectious disease caused by various host-specific strains of the poxvirus. Many birds are affected by these viruses to some extent. The virus can be transmitted directly by infected birds, or be carried by mosquitoes, or other blood-sucking insects. By eliminating breeding areas for these insects, the rate of spread of the virus will decrease. The fowl poxvirus attacks the skin and the surface of the mouth and throat. Depending on its location, pox is referred to as either skin pox or wet pox. Skin pox form swart-like sores, which eventually enlarge and form masses of yellow, dirty crusts. In about a week, these scabs darken and fall off. Wet pox forms cheesy masses in the mouth, nose, and throat, which interfere with eating and drinking. Antibiotics may be administered to prevent bacterial infections but the best method of control and prevention is by vaccination of day-old chicks. This virus is capable of surviving for a long time in infected material, such as scabs and litter. Such material should therefore be incinerated.

Infectious bronchitis (IB)

          IB is an acute, highly infectious disease of poultry, which may kill young chicks and lower egg production in adult birds. Birds sneeze and have a moist cough. The entire flock will be affected. Laying birds will stop laying and it may take a very long time for them to return to production. There is no effective treatment for this disease. Maintenance of a correct, even temperature in the brooder and a high-quality diet will help to minimize losses. Commercial flocks are routinely vaccinated.

Infectious laryngotracheitis (ILT)

          ILT is a disease of all ages of poultry, although usually it is seen in adult birds. An acute form may attack 100% of a flock and cause severe mortality. In the acute form, affected birds exhibit a nasal discharge, gurgling breath sounds, gasping, and coughing up of blood-stained mucus. In the mild form, birds are unthrifty, lay poorly, and have watery eyes and a persistent nasal discharge. There is no effective treatment but vaccination of unaffected birds may limit an outbreak. Vaccination is effective in preventing the appearance of the disease.

 

Reticuloendotheliosis (RE)

          RE became an important disease of commercial flocks in 1976 and, occasionally, still appears in an epidemic form. It causes running, increased susceptibility to other diseases, and feathering defects in growing chicks. In adult birds, it causes Lymphoid tumors. No treatment or vaccination is available.

 Avian encephalomyelitis (AE)

          AE is a disease of poultry, turkeys, pheasants, and quail, which affects only chicks from hatching to about two months of age. The symptoms are dullness, tremors of the head, staggering, paralysis, and prostration. Adult birds show no symptoms other than a decline in egg production, but they carry the virus and pass it on through the egg. The disease may also spread from chick to chick and up to 60% of birds may be affected. There is no treatment for AE but vaccination will prevent it.

 

EXOTIC DISEASES

          Exotic diseases are those which are present elsewhere in the world but not in Australia. There are three which particularly threaten the Australian poultry industry.

Newcastle disease:    

          This virus is found in Australia in a mild form only. The dangerous form is widespread throughout the rest of the world. If it became established in Australia, the cost to the poultry industry could be enormous. Newcastle disease is a highly contagious, lethal disease of chickens and turkeys, although nearly all avian species are susceptible. It may also cause conjunctivitis in humans. In poultry, it may take the form of hemorrhagic enteritis and paralysis or acute respiratory disease.

Avian influenza or bird flu:

          It is potentially a fatal disease affecting several bird species and humans. Its symptoms range from mild upper respiratory disease to an acute, generalized, fatal condition. The virus may remain infective in droppings and water for at least a month.

 General Disease control Practices

Then the following can only be used as guidelines for disease control, for proper disease

diagnosis and treatment, consult the veterinarian.

• Don’t overcrowd brooders

• Adequate ventilation

• Feed must be of good quality

• Give clean water ad-lib

• Don’t mix young and older birds

• Clean poultry house

• Dispose of dead birds quickly and isolate sick ones

• Provide disinfectant at the entrance to the house

• NB: Antibiotics should never be used to replace good management

and should be used on prescription by a veterinary

General Biosecurity /Sanitation Program for Poultry

•Do not expose your flock to birds from other flocks.

•Buy chicks from known sources.

•Buy chicks from pullorum clean flocks.

•Keep young chicks away from older birds.

•Burn or bury dead birds.

•Allow no contaminated equipment to be brought on your premises.

•Keep visitors away from your poultry houses or ranges.

•Keep chickens that have left the premises from getting back into the flock.

•Dispose of sick chickens.

•Should disease appear, seek authoritative advice promptly.

•Use preventative and control medications with extreme caution.

•Treat droppings as potential disease spreaders.

•Try to eliminate rats, lice, and other pests.

•Handle vaccines properly. Follow the manufacturer's directions.

•Keep different species of fowl segregated.

•Do not sell birds known to be diseased.

•Clean poultry buildings carefully and thoroughly.

•Enforce a strict program of sanitation and quarantine.